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Subordinating Clauses in Kavrinian
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Menu 1. Relative clauses and Noun clauses 2. Conjunctions 3. Examples

[edit] [top]Relative clauses and Noun clauses

Kavrinian uses several strategies to form relative clauses. Kavrinian mainly applies a left branching gap strategy, with a secondary use of pronoun-retention strategy. The gap strategy is more common when relativizing the subject, the direct object and the indirect object of a sentence, and is obliged when relativizing the subject; the pronoun-retention strategy is more common when relativizing obliques, and is obliged when relativizing possessors and standard of comparison; also, Kavrinian never uses interrogatives in subordinating clauses.

main clauses have a free word order with OVS being the basic; the word order of subordinating clauses is SOV.

Prenominal relative clauses don't have relativizers, relative clauses or complementizers, one simply put the relative clause before the head noun, like Japanese; postnominal relative clauses also exist, but the use is more restricted and is not commonly used nowadays, postnominal relative clauses start with the relativizer o. The relativizer for postnominal relative clauses o is invariant, it does not decline according to the number, case, animacy, etc. of the head noun in the main clause or the relative clause; also, postnominal relative clauses usually only used to relativize the subject, the direct object and the indirect object.

Syntactically, noun clauses in Kavrinian work in a same way as relative clauses.

[edit] [top]Conjunctions

There are two types of conjunctions: coordinate conjunctiond and subordinating conjunctions. Coordinate conjunctions are placed in the initial position of a sentence and sentences of both sides follow the order of main clauses; subordinating conjunctions are placed in the end of a sentence, and the sentence preceding a subordinating conjunction followe the word order of a subordinating clause.

Etymologically, subordinating conjunctions derived from nouns and postpositions; and many coordinating conjunctions derive from adverbs, and this is why they work differently

[edit] [top]Examples


Below are examples of subordinating clauses in Kavrinian

1. I see the man who is my father.

ga'ata kay noorus sanig
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-father be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
-DEFDefinite
"the"
see-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


in postnominal relative clauses:

noorus, o ga'ata kay, sanig
male-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
-DEFDefinite
"the"
RELRelative 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-father be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
see-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


2. I speak to the man whom I see.

sanig noorënsi väsig
see-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


in postnominal relative clauses:

noorënsi, o sanig, väsig
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
RELRelative see-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


3. I speak to the man who sees me.

gav sani noorënsi väsig
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
see-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


in postnominal relative clauses:

noorënsi, o gav sani, väsig
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
RELRelative 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
see-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


4. I speak to the man your brother gave a book to.

ganocïïr not yanyooy noorënsi väsig
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-big.brother book give-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


in postnominal relative clauses:

noorënsi, o ganocïïr not yanyooy, väsig
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
RELRelative 1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-big.brother book give-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


5. I speak to the man that was given a book by your brother.

inocïïrën ra not yanče neyay noorënsi väsig
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-big.brother book give-PTCPParticiple
adjectival form of a verb
be.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'
.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


This may indicate that the person that was give a book is negatively affected by the action of giving books.

6. I speak to the man that your sister talks about.

isocïïr ruv geel öši noorënsi väsig
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-big.sister 3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
about talk-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


This is an example of pronoun retention, with ruv "he/she/it(dative or accusative)" in the relative clause referring to noorënsi "the male(dative)", the head noun of the relative clause

The gap strategy can also be used in this case, but it may cause ambiguities in this case and would require a context to disambiguate:

isocïïr öši noorënsi väsig
2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-big.sister talk-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


it can mean "I speak to the man that your sister talks about.", "I speak to the man that your sister talks with." and so on, and in this case, the exact meaning is determined by the context.

7. I speak to the man whose son is a soldier.

ru runoniis kay noorënsi väsig
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
-son be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DEFDefinite
"the"
speak-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


note that the usual gap strategy is not used, or is highly restricted, when the antecedent is a possessor in the relative clause.

8. I ask about the girl you went to school with.

ruv të zukaan kë kal soniisus geel ǧyötig
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
with school-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
to go.2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
girl-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
-DEFDefinite
"the"
about ask-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


again, the pronoun-retention strategy is used, with ruv "he/she/it(dative or accusative)" in the relative clause referring to soniisus "the girl(accusative)", the head noun of the relative clause

9. I run from the man who I was seen by.

ruv ra sanče neyag noorënsi ra ašig
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
/ACC from see-PTCPParticiple
adjectival form of a verb
be.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'
male-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
-DFUnknown code from run-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


again, the pronoun-retention strategy is used, with with ruv "he/she/it(dative or accusative)" in the relative clause referring to noorënsi "the male(dative)", the head noun of the relative clause

besides, the passive voice would often be used in this sentence, as the person being seen "I" is adversely affected by the action of seeing.

10. I don’t fear the man I am taller than.

ru ra gaan neg noorus nhaa vacig
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
from tall be.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
male-ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
-DEFDefinite
"the"
NEGNegative (polarity)
not
fear-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


again, the pronoun-retention strategy is used, with with ruv "he/she/it(dative or accusative)" in the relative clause referring to noorus "the male(accusative)", the head noun of the relative clause.

note that the usual gap strategy is not used when the antecedent is the standard of comparison in the relative clause.

11. I don’t know where to put it.

yo yek tsänig čala nhaa zög
3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile
put.INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
should-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
place-DEFDefinite
"the"
NEGNegative (polarity)
not
know-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


literally "I don't know the place that I should put it"

interrogatives are not used in this kind of clause, and generic nouns indicating the relevant meanings(e.g. čala "the place", zosyus "the time", us "the word(used when quoting a sentence)", kos "the way", öla "the reason", ǧos "the matter", etc.) are always used.

12. She didn’t say why she was crying.

öczëk a neyay öla nhaa väsyooy
cry-INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
at be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'
reason-DEFDefinite
"the"
NEGNegative (polarity)
not
say-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving


literally "he/she did not say the reason that he/she was crying"

13. Tell me when you came home.

lhaan önyool zosyus, gav röci
home-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
come-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
time-DEFDefinite
"the"
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
tell-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


14. He wrote about how it happened.

nu cayoo kos geel tanhyooy
that happen-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile
way-DEFDefinite
"the"
about write-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving


15. I did it to make money.

ryon hag kë yo tayoog
money get.INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
to 3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile
do-PSt.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity


16. He doesn’t know that an accident happened.

nhëlok cayoo ǧos nhaa zöy
accident happen-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
matter-DEFDefinite
"the"
NEGNegative (polarity)
not
know-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


literally "he does not know the matter that an accident happened". The word ǧos "the matter" is often used to form a noun clause.

17. I know that I am old.

rï neg ǧos zög
old be.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
matter-DEFDefinite
"the"
know-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving


18. I know that I have failed.

tsurööc nhäczoog ǧos zög
already fail-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
matter-DEFDefinite
"the"
know-1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving


19. After coming home he makes dinner.

lhaan öni ǧi inonh ti
home-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
come-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
after dinner make.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


ǧi "after" is an subordinating conjunction, therefore the preceding sentence follows the word order of subordinating clauses.

20. He comes home and makes dinner.

lhaan öni lïč inonh ti
home-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
come-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
and dinner make.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


lïč "and" is a coordinate conjunction, the clauses on both sides follow the order of main clauses

another example to show the property of a coordinate conjunction:

lhaan öni Ašučky lïč inonh ti Haši
home-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
come-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
Ashucky and dinner make.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
Hashi
"Ashucky comes home and Hashi makes dinner"(sorry for using your names @[Deactivated User] @[Deactivated User] )

21. Although he came home, we were sad.

lhaan önyooy luuv cooq neya'eq
home-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
come-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
although sad be.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.INCLInclusive (person)
speaker and listener
.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'


luuv "although" is a subordinating conjunction

another example to show the property of a subordinating conjunction:

Haši ǧis önyooy luuv cooq neya'eq
Hashi back come-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
although sad be.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few
.INCLInclusive (person)
speaker and listener
.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'

"Although Hashi came back, we were sad"

22. I am bleeding because she hit me.

soorsi gav tonhyooy ra yozarëk a neg
female-DEFDefinite
"the"
1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
.ACCAccusative (case)
TRANS direct object; patient
hit-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
because bleed-INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
at be.1First person (person)
speaker, signer, etc; I
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


ra "because, from" is a subordinating conjunction.

23. Before going home he makes dinner.

lhaan ki cï inonh ti
home-DATDative (case)
indirect object; recipient, beneficiary, location
go.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
beforedinner make.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


cï "before" is a subordinating conjunction.

24. You will fail unless you try harder.

nhäczoy nhëczïïn tään csonhi
fail-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech
-2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
unless hard try-2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


nhëczïïn "unless" is a coordinate conjunction.

another example to show the property of a coordinate conjunction:

yöroy Ašučky nhëczïïn öni Haši
leave-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
Ashucky unless come-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
Hashi
"Ashucky will leave unless Hashi comes"

25. As soon as he came in he got angry.

nhï önyooy yelzo rhayar vatyooy
inside come-PSt.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
as.soon.as angry become-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity


yelzo "as soon as(from yel "same" + zo "when(subordinating conjunction)")" is a subordinating conjunction

26. While the man was busy, she got away.

noorsi töölh neyay luuv zašooy
male-DEFDefinite
"the"
busy be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
although escape-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving


27. He isn’t someone to do that.

nu tak nerinh nhaa kay
that.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
do-INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
someone NEGNegative (polarity)
not
be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


28. That’s no reason to shout.

gävëk öla nho
shout-INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
reason-DEf not.exist.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit


29. Him buying the house was a surprise.

yees nyönhyooy ǧos vääcë toya
house-DEFDefinite
"the"
buy-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.PFVPerfective (aspect)
completed action
-3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.ANAnimate (gender/class)
alive, moving
matter-DEFDefinite
"the"
surprise be.3Third person (person)
neither speaker nor addressee
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.INANInanimate (gender/class)
inanimate, sessile
.PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech
.IPFVImperfective (aspect)
'interrupted or incomplete'


30. You’re a hard man to predict.

cïväsëk taaq noor kal
predict-INFInfinitive (TAM)
non-tensed verb
hard male be.2Second person (person)
addressee (you)
.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
.HABHabitual (aspect)
done often or out of habit
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