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Vihči.
vihč-i
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument.3SGUnknown code
"It sunshines."
Vihči is the Jáhkarrá word for "sun". It is extremely common to turn a noun into a verb simply by attaching a verb stem formation suffix to it, with the exact meaning of the result largely convention. Here, we get the intransitive verb vihčiid "to shine (sun)", which is then conjugated in the third person singular present, the unmarked form for verbs.
Vihčisuni.
vihč-i-sun-i
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-now-3SGUnknown code
"It now sunshines."
Jáhkarrá does not have aspect as a grammatical category, so this sentence could be translated in the same way as (1). To explicitly stress that the sun is in fact shining right now, you can employ a verbal derivational suffix, -sun (similarity entirely coincidental, it's derived from suna "inside") that expresses the progressive aspect.
Višivvi.
viš-i-vv-i
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-3SGUnknown code
"It sunshone."
Our first encounter with consonant gradation. Jáhkarrá words, irrespective which part of speech, may experience changes of internal consonants when suffixes are attached. In this case, the past tense suffix -vv- causes gradation of hč to š. This always happens when a suffix begins with two consonants, although there are words that are immune to gradation.
Vihčidi.
vihč-i-d-i
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-FUTFuture (tense)
action occurring after the moment of speech-3SGUnknown code
"It will sunshine."
The future suffix is -d-. Because it consists of a single consonant, it does not cause gradation.
Vihčugi.
vihč-ug-i-
sunshine-DELIMUnknown code-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument.3SGUnknown code
"It sunshines for a while."
The derivational suffix -ug expresses the delimitative aspect, that is, the action went on for a while. It does not cause consonant gradation to the stem. The perfect aspect, that is, the notion that something happened in the past but has relevance to the present, remains unexpressed in Jáhkarrá - all that's important is the focus on duration, with the reference point being the present.
Višilli.
viš-i-ll-i-
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-again-3SGUnknown code
"It sunshines again."
Another verb suffix, -ll derives verbs that can be translated as "re[verb]", such as čabbaid - čavallaid "discover - rediscover". It can equally well translate to "again". Like the past tense suffix, its structure causes consonant gradation.
Vihči ljeažžu.
vihč-i ljeažžu
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument.3SGUnknown code tomorrow
"It sunshines tomorrow."
If there is an explicit temporal adverb such as ljeažžu "tomorrow", there is no need to use the future tense.
Vihči hilče.
vihč-i hilč-e
sunshine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument.3SGUnknown code bright-ADVAdverbial
e.g. English '-ly'
"It sunshines brightly."
Adverbs are formed from adjectives with the suffix -e. If the adjective ends in a vowel, such as hilči "bright", this vowel is elided. Jáhkarrá has many adverbs that cannot stand on their own, but instead appear as verb suffixes; here this is, however, not the case.
Hilci vihči gálvi.
hilči vihči gálv-i
bright sun shine-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument.3SGUnknown code
"The bright sun shines."
Now that the sun is descibed by an adjective, it becomes a noun of its own. The verb changes mainly for reasons of style - although it would still be possible to use vihčiid here, it's better to avoid repetition of the vihč- stem by replacing it with gálviid, the general verb for "shine" without the specific context of the sun.
Vihči čojistisuni.
vihči čojist-i-sun-i
sun rise-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-now-3SGUnknown code
"The sun rises now."
Just as with (2), the progressive aspect is not grammatically marked; the -sun suffix is enough. The verb čojistiid exemplifies a regular and common pattern in Jáhkarrá where a stative verb, in this case čodjiid "be high/tall" (from čodjá "height") derives an intransitive causative with the -sti- suffix and thus becomes a dynamic intransitive verb. This intransitive causative literally means "causes [itself] to do X".
Jáhkkin uimmovivvige.
jáhkk-in uimm-ov-i-vvi-ge
person-NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few call-INTSIntensive-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-all.SUBSubject (argument)
"The people all shouted."
Jáhka, the word that is also found in the name of tha language, means "human, person". Its nominative plural causes consonant gradation. The verb uimmohpiid "to shout" is a derivation of uibmiid "to call", using the intensive suffix -ohp-. Both the stem and the suffix appear in the third grade - the former die to the suffix, the latter because of the past tense marker -vvi.
The sentence also shows the Jáhkarrá way of handling indefinite pronouns: they are agreement suffixes on the verb (although they also exist as noun suffixes in case a noun occurs on its own or is not a core argument). The people are entirely unmarked, while the verb expresses "all" via its subject agreement ending -ge.
Jáhkkin uimmovivvire.
jáhkk-in uimm-ov-i-vvi-re
person-NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few call-INTSIntensive-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-some.SUBSubject (argument)
"The people some shouted."
Almost identical to number 11, but with a different agreement suffix -re, indicating some.
Jáhkagáčin beajo uimmovivvea.
jáhka-gáč-in beaj-o uimm-ov-i-vv-ea
person-many-NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few two-times call-INTSIntensive-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-3PLUnknown code.SUBSubject (argument)
"Many people two times shouted."
Measure expressions are also suffixes. Here we have -gáža "much, many, a lot of", in the second grade because of the nominative plural but causing no gradation itself. Beajo "twice" is from beai "two"; the suffix -o derives "X times" expressions from numerals. Finally, the verb has simple plural agreement this time.
Oaibmi jáhkkin uimmovizzea.
oaibmi jáhkk-in uimm-ov-izz-ea
happy person-NOMNominative (case)
TRANS subject, INTR argument.PLPlural (number)
more than one/few call-INTSIntensive-often-3PLUnknown code.INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument
"Happy people often shout."
Adjectives come before the nouns they modify and exhibit no agreement whatsoever. The "often" is a suffix (-izz-) that causes the third grade. This verb shows how the thematic vowel of the conjugations (which is /i/ for intransitives) changes in the plural: /i/ becomes /æ/, and the third person itself is unmarked.
Njeajasti bujivvi gaddirá.
Njeaja-sti buj-i-vv-i gaddi-rá.
cat-DIMDiminutive
a smaller, lesser, weaker etc. version jump-INTRIntransitive (valency)
has one argument-PSTPast (tense)
action occurred before moment of speech-3SThird person singular (person)
neither speaker nor addressee top-ALLAllative (case)
'to, onto'.SGSingular (number)
one countable entity
"The catlet jumped towards the top."
The diminutive -sti- is very productive in Jáhkarrá. Like most suffixes beginning with two consonants, it requires the third grade. The upwards motion of the kitten's jump is expressed by the allative of gaddi "topside".
[edit] [top]38. Directly opposite stands a wonderful palace.
[edit] [top]49. A little girl with a kitten sat near me.
[edit] [top]50. The child waited at the door for her father.
[edit] [top]51. Yesterday the oldest girl in the village lost her kitten.
[edit] [top]57. Have the neighbors gone away for the winter?
[edit] [top]61. We sailed down the river for several miles.
[edit] [top]63. On a Sunny morning after the solstice we started for the mountains.
[edit] [top]65. An old man with a walking stick stood beside the fence.
[edit] [top]66. The squirrel's nest was hidden by drooping boughs.
[edit] [top]67. The little seeds waited patiently under the snow for the warm spring sun.
[edit] [top]68. Many little girls with wreaths of flowers on their heads danced around the bonfire.
[edit] [top]69. The cover of the basket fell to the floor.
[edit] [top]70. The first boy in the line stopped at the entrance.
[edit] [top]71. On the top of the hill in a little hut lived a wise old woman.
[edit] [top]72. During our residence in the country we often walked in the pastures.
[edit] [top]73. When will your guests from the city arrive?
[edit] [top]74. Near the mouth of the river, its course turns sharply towards the East.
[edit] [top]75. Between the two lofty mountains lay a fertile valley.
[edit] [top]77. The strong roots of the oak trees were torn from the ground.
[edit] [top]78. The sun looked down through the branches upon the children at play.
[edit] [top]79. The west wind blew across my face like a friendly caress.
[edit] [top]80. The spool of thread rolled across the floor.
[edit] [top]81. A box of growing plants stood in the Window.
[edit] [top]89. The little boy's father had once been a sailor.
[edit] [top]91. A robin has built his nest in the apple tree.
[edit] [top]92. At noon we ate our lunch by the roadside.
[edit] [top]93. Mr. Jones made a knife for his little boy.
[edit] [top]96. Have all the leaves fallen from the tree?
[edit] [top]100. Is this the first kitten of the litter?
[edit] [top]111. John and Elizabeth are brother and sister.
[edit] [top]113. They opened all the doors and windows.
[edit] [top]119. He played a tune on his wonderful flute.
[edit] [top]120. Toward the end of August the days grow much shorter.
[edit] [top]121. A company of soldiers marched over the hill and across the meadow.
[edit] [top]122. The first part of the story is very interesting.
[edit] [top]123. The crow dropped some pebbles into the pitcher and raised the water to the brim.
[edit] [top]124. The baby clapped her hands and laughed in glee.
[edit] [top]126. The sound of the drums grew louder and louder.
[edit] [top]129. They popped corn, and then sat around the fire and ate it.
[edit] [top]130. They won the first two games, but lost the last one.
[edit] [top]131. Take this note, carry it to your mother; and wait for an answer.
[edit] [top]132. I awoke early, dressed hastily, and went down to breakfast.
[edit] [top]135. Oh, dear! the wind has blown my hat away!
[edit] [top]140. We are a brave people, and love our country.
[edit] [top]142. Jack seized a handful of pebbles and threw them into the lake.
[edit] [top]143. This cottage stood on a low hill, at some distance from the village.
[edit] [top]144. On a fine summer evening, the two old people were sitting outside the door of their cottage.
[edit] [top]147. The boat sails away, like a bird on the wing.
[edit] [top]148. They looked cautiously about, but saw nothing.
[edit] [top]149. The little house had three rooms, a sitting room, a bedroom, and a tiny kitchen.
[edit] [top]150. We visited my uncle's village, the largest village in the world.
[edit] [top]152. The market begins five minutes earlier this week.
[edit] [top]156. Here under this tree they gave their guests a splendid feast.
[edit] [top]157. In winter I get up at night, and dress by yellow candlelight.
[edit] [top]158. Tell the last part of that story again.
[edit] [top]161. She was always, shabby, often ragged, and on cold days very uncomfortable.
[edit] [top]163. I stood, a little mite of a girl, upon a chair by the window, and watched the falling snowflakes.
[edit] [top]164. Show the guests these shells, my son, and tell them their strange history.
[edit] [top]165. Be satisfied with nothing but your best.
[edit] [top]166. We consider them our faithful friends.
[edit] [top]168. The squirrels make their nests warm and snug with soft moss and leaves.
[edit] [top]169. The little girl made the doll's dress herself.
[edit] [top]177. The dress of the little princess was embroidered with roses, the national flower of the Country.
[edit] [top]178. They wore red caps, the symbol of liberty.
[edit] [top]179. With him as our protector, we fear no danger.
[edit] [top]180. All her finery, lace, ribbons, and feathers, was packed away in a trunk.
[edit] [top]182. Every spring and fall our cousins pay us a long visit.
[edit] [top]183. In our climate the grass remains green all winter.
[edit] [top]184. The boy who brought the book has gone.
[edit] [top]185. These are the flowers that you ordered.
[edit] [top]186. I have lost the book that you gave me.
[edit] [top]187. The fisherman who owned the boat now demanded payment.
[edit] [top]191. Do not laugh at me because I seem so absent minded.
[edit] [top]192. I shall lend you the books that you need.
[edit] [top]195. I had a younger brother whose name was Antonio.
[edit] [top]196. Gnomes are little men who live under the ground.
[edit] [top]197. He is loved by everybody, because he has a gentle disposition.
[edit] [top]198. Hold the horse while I run and get my cap.
[edit] [top]201. That is the funniest story I ever heard.
[edit] [top]207. He was very poor, and with his wife and five children lived in a little low cabin of logs and stones.
[edit] [top]208. When the wind blew, the traveler wrapped his mantle more closely around him.
[edit] [top]210. We went back to the place where we saw the roses.
[edit] [top]211. "This tree is fifty feet high," said the gardener.
[edit] [top]212. I think that this train leaves five minutes earlier today.
[edit] [top]213. My opinion is that the governor will grant him a pardon.
[edit] [top]214. Why he has left the city is a mystery.
[edit] [top]215. The house stands where three roads meet.
[edit] [top]217. Evidently that gate is never opened, for the long grass and the great hemlocks grow close against it.
[edit] [top]218. I met a little cottage girl; she was eight years old, she said.
